Definitions of Attitude Essay Example for Free

renderings of Attitude EssayAn military cap baron can be defined as a positive or forbid evaluation of people, objects, event, playivities, ideas, or just or so anything in your environment, but there is debate about precise definitions. Eagly and Chaiken, for grammatical case, define an rational office a mental extendency that is expressed by evaluating a finical entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.2 Though it is some ages common to define an placement as stance toward an object, impinge on (i.e., discrete perceptual experiences or overall arousal) is generally understood to be distinct from military strength as a measure of favorability. 3 This definition of position al scummys for wizs evaluation of an attitude object to modify from extremely negative to extremely positive, but in accessory admits that people can also be conflicted or incertain toward an object meaning that they susceptibility at divers(prenominal) times express both positiv e and negative attitude toward the uniform object.This has led to some raillery of whether sensation-on-one can bind multiple attitudes toward the same object.4 Whether attitudes ar explicit (i.e., deliberately formed) versus implicit in(predicate) (i.e., sub sure) has been a topic of considerable query. Research on implicit attitudes, which argon generally unacknowledged or outside of aw atomic number 18ness, uses sophisticated methods involving peoples response times to stimuli to show that implicit attitudes exist (perhaps in tandem with explicit attitudes of the same object). Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect peoples look, though in varied ways. They tend non to be surdly associated with each other, although in some cases they atomic number 18. The affinity between them is poorly understood.Jungs definitionAttitude is one of Jungs 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types. Jungs definition of attitude is a readiness of the psyche to act or r eact in a certain way (Jung, 1921 1971par. 687). Attitudes very often come in pairs, one conscious and the other unconscious. Within this loose definition Jung defines several attitudes. The main (but not only) attitude dualities that Jung defines are the following. Consciousness and the unconscious. The presence of two attitudes is extremely frequent, one conscious and the other unconscious. This means that intellect has a constellation of contents different from that of the unconscious, a duality particularly evident in neurosis (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 687). Extraversion and introversion. This pair is so elementary to Jungs possibility of types that he labeled them the attitude-types. Rational and irrational attitudes. I conceive reason as an attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 785). The rational attitude subdivides into the thought and feeling psychological functions, each with its attitude. The irrational attitude subdivides into the sensing and intuition psychological functions, ea ch with its attitude. There is thus a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 691). Individual and kindly attitudes. many another(prenominal) of the latter are isms. In addition, Jung discusses the abstract attitude. When I take an abstract attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 679). Abstr challenge is contrasted with concretism. CONCRETISM. By this I mean a peculiarity of thinking and feeling which is the antithesis of abstraction (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 696). For example I hate his attitude for being Sarcastic.Pasted fromThe classic, tripartite view offered by William J. McGuire9 is that an attitude contains cognitive, perceptional, and wayal components. Empirical research, however, fails to sustainment clear distinctions between thoughts, emotions, and conductal intentions associated with a particular attitude.10 A criticism of the tripartite view of attitudes is that it requires cognitive, affective, and behavioural associations of an att itude to be consistent, but this may be implausible.Thus some views of attitude structure see the cognitive and behavioral components as derivative of affect or affect and behavior as derivative of underlying vox populis.11 Despite debate about the particular structure of attitudes, there is considerable point that attitudes invent to a greater extent than evaluations of a particular object that vary from positive to negative. Attitudes also boast other characteristics, such as importance, certainty, or accessibility (measures of attitude strength) and associated knowledge.12 There is also considerable interest in inter-attitudinal structure, which connects different attitudes to one another and to much underlying psychological structures, such as set or ideology.13Attitude functionAnother classic view of attitudes is that attitudes help particular functions for individuals. That is, researchers stupefy tried to understand why individuals hold particular attitudes or why t hey hold attitudes in general by considering how attitudes affect the individuals who hold them.14 Daniel Katz, for example, writes that attitudes can serve instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian, ego-defensive, value-expressive, or knowledge functions.15The functional view of attitudes suggests that in order for attitudes to assortment (e.g., via popular opinion), appeals must be made to the function(s) that a particular attitude serves for the individual. As an example, the ego-defensive function might be used to see the racially prejudicial attitudes of an individual who sees themselves as open- drumheaded and tolerant. By appeal to that individuals image of themselves as tolerant and open- intelligenceed, it may be possible to depart their prejudicial attitudes to be more consistent with their self- image. Similarly, a persuasive sum that threatens self-image is practically more correspondingly to be rejected.16Attitude formationAccording to Doob (1947), learning can acc ount for more or less of the attitudes we hold. Theories of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and social learning are mainly responsible for formation of attitude. Unlike soulfulnessality, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience. Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes but believes that they may do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent in our beliefs and values. As with any type of heritability, to determine if a particular trait has a basis in our genes, twin studies are used.17The most famous example of such a speculation is Dissonance-reduction supposition, associated with Leon Festinger, which explains that when the components of an attitude (including belief and behavior) are at odds an individual may adjust one to match the other (for example, adjusting a belief to match a behavior).18 Other theories hold balance theory, origincally proposed by Heider ( 1958), and the self-perception theory, originally proposed by Daryl Bem.19Attitude changeMain expression Attitude changeAttitudes can be changed through perspective and an important domain of research on attitude change focuses on responses to communication. Experimental research into the factors that can affect the persuasiveness of a subject matter include1. take aim Characteristics These are characteristics that refer to the soulfulness who receives and actes a message. One such trait is intelligence it seems that more intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages. Another variable that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is really curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily persuaded than both those of high and low self-esteem levels (Rhod es Woods, 1992). The mind frame and mood of the target also plays a usage in this process.2. Source Characteristics The major source characteristics are expertise, trustworthiness and social attraction or attractiveness. The credibility of a perceived message has been found to be a key variable here if one reads a deal about health and believes it came from a professional medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists have debated whether this is a long-lasting military group and Hovland and Weiss (1951) found the effect of telling people that a message came from a credible source disappeared after several weeks (the supposed sleeper effect). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Perceived wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before earshot it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and consequently told its source.3. Messa ge Characteristics The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion. Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes. When people are not motivated to process the message, simply the spot of arguments presented in a persuasive message get out influence attitude change, such that a greater number of arguments bequeath produce greater attitude change.204. cognitive Routes A message can appeal to an individuals cognitive evaluation to help change an attitude. In the central bridle-path to persuasion the individual is presented with the data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an attitude changing conclusion. In the peripheral route to attitude change, the individual is encouraged to not smack at the content but at the source. This is commonly seen in modern advertisements that feature celebrities. In some cases, physician, doctors or experts are used. In other cases flash stars are used for their attractiveness.Emotion and attitude changeEmotion is a common component in persuasion, social influence, and attitude change. Much of attitude research emphasized the importance of affective or emotion components. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive process, or the way we think, about an issue or shoes. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components. Attitudes are part of the brains associative networks, the spider-like structures residing in long term memory that consist of affective and cognitive nodes.By trip an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. In primarily affective networks, it is more tricky to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to p ersuasion and attitude change. Affective forecasting, otherwise known as intuition or the foresight of emotion, also impacts attitude change. Research suggests that predicting emotions is an important component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How we feel about an outcome may override purely cognitive rationales.In terms of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is measuring emotion and subsequent impacts on attitude. Since we cannot see into the brain, variant forges and measurement tools have been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude information. Measures may include the use of physiological cues like facial expressions, vocal changes, and other body rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised eyebrows, increased stock ticker rate and increase body tension (Dillard, 1994). Other methods include sentiment or network mapping, and using primes or word cues in the era .Components of emotion appealsAny discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal this may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, fear, blue, disturbed, haunted,and anger. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in communication and social influence research. Important consequences of fear appeals and other emotion appeals include the possibility of reactance which may place to both message rejections or source rejection and the absence of attitude change. As the EPPM suggests, there is an optimal emotion level in motivating attitude change. If there is not enough motivation, an attitude will not change if the emotional appeal is overdone, the motivation can be paralyzed thereby preventing attitude change. Emotions perceived as negative or containing threat are often studied more than perceived positive emotions like humor.Though the inner-workings of humor are not concord upon, humor appeals may work by creating incongruities in the mind. Recent research has looked at the impact of humor on the impact of politic al messages. man evidence is inconclusive, there appears to be potential for targeted attitude change is receivers with low political message meanment. Important factors that influence the impact of emotion appeals include self efficacy, attitude accessibility, issue involvement, and message/source features. Self efficacy is a perception of ones own human agency in other words, it is the perception of our own ability to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotion appeal messages because it dictates a persons ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation.For example, if a person is not self-efficacious about their ability to impact the global environment, they are not in all likelihood to change their attitude or behavior about global warming. Dillard (1994) suggests that message features such as source non-verbal communication, message content, and receiver differences can impact the emotion impact of fear appeals. The characteristics of a message are important because one message can elicit different levels of emotion for different people. Thus, in terms of emotion appeals messages, one size does not fit all. Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words, how readily available is an attitude about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement is the relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual. Issue involvement has been correlated with both attitude access and attitude strength. Past studies conclude favorable attitudes are more resistant to change.Attitude-behavior relationshipThis section requires expansion. (September 2012)The effects of attitudes on behaviors represents a significant research enterprise within psychology. Two theoretical approaches have dominated this research the theory of reasoned action21 and, its theoretical descendant, the theory of planned behavior,22 both of which are associated with Icek Ajzen. Both of these theories describe the link between attitude and behavior as a thoughtful process, with an individual actively choosing to utilize in an attitude-related behavior.An alternative model, called MODE for Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants was proposed by Russell H. Fazio, which focuses on motivations and opportunities for deliberative attitude-related behavior to go on. MODE is a Dual process theory that expects deliberative attitude-behavior linkages like those modeled by the theory of planned behavior only occur when individuals have motivation to reflect upon their own attitudes.Pasted from guess of reasoned actionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to navigation, searchThe theory of reasoned action (TRA), is a model for the prediction of behavioral intention, spanning predictions of attitude and predictions of behavior. The subsequent separation of behavioral intention from behavior allows for explanation of limiting factors on attitudinal influence (Ajzen, 1980). The guess of Reasone d Action was developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975, 1980), derived from previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the study of attitude and behavior. The theory was born considerablely out of frustration with traditional attitudebehavior research, much of which found anemic correlations between attitude measures and performance of volitional behaviors (Hale, Householder Greene, 2003, p. 259).Pasted fromDefinition and exampleDerived from the social psychology background, the theory of reasoned action (TRA) was proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1975 1980). The components of TRA are three general constructs behavioral intention (BI), attitude (A), and subjective average (SN). TRA suggests that a persons behavioral intention depends on the persons attitude about the behavior and subjective norms (BI = A + SN). If a person intends to do a behavior then it is likely that the person will do it. Behavioral intention measures a persons relativ e strength of intention to perform a behavior. Attitude consists of beliefs about the consequences of playacting the behavior multiplied by his or her evaluation of these consequences. (Fishbein Ajzen, 1975) Subjective norm is seen as a combination of perceived expectations from relevant individuals or groups along with intentions to abide by with these expectations.In other words, the persons perception that most people who are important to him or her think he should or should not perform the behavior in question (Fishbein Ajzen, 1975). To put the definition into simple terms a persons volitional (voluntary) behavior is predicted by his/her attitude toward that behavior and how he/she thinks other people would view them if they performed the behavior. A persons attitude, combined with subjective norms, forms his/her behavioral intention.Fishbein and Ajzen say, though, that attitudes and norms are not weight down equally in predicting behavior. Indeed, depending on the individu al and the situation, these factors might be very different effects on behavioral intention thus a weight is associated with each of these factors in the predictive formula of the theory. For example, you might be the kind of person who cares little for what others think. If this is the case, the subjective norms would carry little weight in predicting your behavior (Miller, 2005, p. 127). Miller (2005) defines each of the three components of the theory as follows and uses the example of embarking on a new tangible execution program to illustrate the theory Attitudes the sum of beliefs about a particular behavior weighted by evaluations of these beliefs You might have the beliefs that exercise is good for your health, that exercise makes you look good, that exercise takes too much time, and that exercise is uncomfortable. Each of these beliefs can be weighted (e.g., health issues might be more important to you than issues of time and comfort). Subjective norms looks at the influe nce of people in ones social environment on his/her behavioral intentions the beliefs of people, weighted by the importance one attributes to each of their opinions, will influence ones behavioral intention You might have some friends who are avid exercisers and constantly encourage you to join them. However, your spouse might prefer a more sedentary lifestyle and scoff at those who work out. The beliefs of these people, weighted by the importance you attribute to each of their opinions, will influence your behavioral intention to exercise, which will lead to your behavior to exercise or not exercise. Behavioral intention a function of both attitudes toward a behavior and subjective norms toward that behavior, which has been found to predict actual behavior. Your attitudes about exercise combined with the subjective norms about exercise, each with their own weight, will lead you to your intention to exercise (or not), which will then lead to your actual behavior.Pasted fromIn psycho logy, the theory of planned behavior is a theory about the link between attitudes and behavior. The concept was proposed by Icek Ajzen to improve on the predictive power of the theory of reasoned action by including perceived behavioural control.1 It is one of the most predictive persuasion theories. It has been applied to studies of the relations among beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions and behaviors in various fields such as advertising, public relations, advertising campaigns and healthcare. The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individuals behavioral intentions and behaviors.Pasted fromExtension from the theory of reasoned actionThe theory of planned behavior was proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 through his article From intentions to actions A theory of planned behavior. The theory was developed from the theory of reasoned action, which was proposed by Martin Fishbein together with Icek Ajzen i n 1975. The theory of reasoned action was in disco biscuit grounded in various theories of attitude such as learning theories, expectancy-value theories, consistency theories,2 and attribution theory.3 According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behavior as positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others indispensability them to perform the behavior (subjective norm), this results in a higher intention (motivation) and they are more likely to do so.A high correlation of attitudes and subjective norms to behavioral intention, and subsequently to behavior, has been confirmed in many studies.4 A counter-argument against the high relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior has also been proposed, as the results of some studies show that, because of circumstantial limitations, behavioral intention does not always lead to actual behavior. Namely, since behavioral intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of behavior where an individuals control over the behavior is incomplete, Ajzen introduced the theory of planned behavior by adding a new component, perceived behavioral control. By this, he extended the theory of reasoned action to cover non-volitional behaviors for predicting behavioral intention and actual behavior.Extension of self-efficacyIn addition to attitudes and subjective norms (which make the theory of reasoned action), the theory of planned behavior adds the concept of perceived behavioral control, which originates from self-efficacy theory (SET). Self-efficacy was proposed by Bandura in 1977, which came from social cognitive theory. According to Bandura, expectations such as motivation, performance, and feelings of frustration associated with repeated failures determine effect and behavioral reactions. Bandura (1986)full citation needed separated expectations into two distinct types self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. He defined self-efficacy as the conviction that one can succe ssfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcomes.The outcome expectancy refers to a persons estimation that a minded(p) behavior will lead to certain outcomes. He states that self-efficacy is the most important precondition for behavioral change, since it determines the initiation of coping behavior. Previous investigations have shown that peoples behavior is strongly influenced by their confidence in their ability to perform that behavior (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, Howells, 1980).full citation needed As the self-efficacy theory contributes to explaining various relationships between beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior, the SET has been widely applied to health-related fields such as physical activity and mental health in preadolescents,5 and exercise.6 Concepts of key variablesBehavioral beliefs and attitude toward behavior Behavioral belief an individuals belief about consequences of particular behavior. The concept is found on the subjective probability that the behavior will produce a prone outcome. Attitude toward behavior an individuals positive or negative evaluation of self-performance of the particular behavior. The concept is the degree to which performance of the behavior is positively or negatively valued. It is determined by the total set of accessible behavioral beliefs linking the behavior to various outcomes and other attributes.Normative beliefs and subjective norms Normative belief an individuals perception about the particular behavior, which is influenced by the judgment of significant others (e.g., parents, spouse, friends, teachers).7 Subjective norm an individuals perception of social normative pressures, or relevant others beliefs that he or she should or should not perform such behavior. Control beliefs and perceived behavioral control Perceived behavioral control an individuals perceived ease or difficulty of performing the particular behavior (Ajzen, 1988).full citation needed It is assumed that perceived behav ioral control is determined by the total set of accessible control beliefs. Control beliefs an individuals beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behavior (Ajzen, 2001).full citation needed The concept of perceived behavioral control is conceptually related to self-efficacy.Behavioral intention and behavior Behavioral intention an indication of an individuals readiness to perform a containn behavior. It is assumed to be an immediate antecedent of behavior (Ajzen, 2002b).full citation needed It is ground on attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, with each predictor weighted for its importance in relation to the behavior and population of interest. Behavior an individuals observable response in a given situation with respect to a given target. Ajzen said a behavior is a function of compatible intentions and perceptions of behavioral control in that perceived behavioral control is expected to mo derate the effect of intention on behavior, such that a favorable intention produces the behavior only when perceived behavioral control is strong.Pasted fromCognitive dissonance is a term used in modern psychology to describe the feeling of discomfort when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions ideas, beliefs, values or emotional reactions. In a state of dissonance, people may sometimes feel disequilibrium frustration, hunger, dread, guilt, anger, embarrassment, anxiety, etc.1 The phrase was coined by Leon Festinger in his 1956 book When Prophecy Fails, which chronicled the chase of a UFO cult as reality clashed with their fervent belief in an impending apocalypse.23 Festinger subsequently published a book called A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, published in 1957, in which he outlines the theory.Cognitive dissonance is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology. The theory of cognitive dissonance in social psychology propo ses that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering vivacious cognitions, adding new ones to create a consistent belief system, or alternatively by reducing the importance of any one of the dissonant elements.1 It is the distressing mental state that people feel when they find themselves doing things that dont fit with what they know, or having opinions that do not fit with other opinions they hold. 4 A key assumption is that people want their expectations to meet reality, creating a sense of equilibrium. 5Likewise, another assumption is that a person will avoid situations or information sources that give rise to feelings of uneasiness, or dissonance.1 Cognitive dissonance theory explains human behavior by positing that people have a bias to seek consonance between their expectations and reality. According to Festinger, people engage in a process he termed dissonance reduction, which can be achieved in one of three ways lowering the importance of one of the discordant factors, adding consonant elements, or changing one of the dissonant factors.6 This bias sheds light on otherwise puzzling, irrational, and even destructive behavior.Pasted fromThe expansion likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion1 is a dual process theory of how attitudes are formed and changed that was developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in the early 1980s (see also attitude change). The model proposes an elaboration continuum, which determines the extent to which arguments are processed and evaluated (high elaboration) versus peripheral cues such as source expertise or attractiveness (low elaboration) shape persuasion. The model is exchangeable to the Heuristic-systematic model of information processing developed around the same time by Shelly Chaiken.Pasted fromCentral routeCentral route processes require the auditory sense to use a great deal more thought, and therefore are likely to predominate under conditions that publicize high elaboration. Central r oute processes involve careful scrutiny of a persuasive communication (e.g., a speech, an advertisement, etc.) to determine the merits of the arguments. Under these conditions, a persons unique cognitive responses to the message determine the persuasive outcome. If a person evaluates a message centrally as reliable, well-constructed, and convincing, it will often be received as favorable even if it is contrasting to the receivers original stance on the message.So, if favorable thoughts are a result of the elaboration process, the message will most likely be accepted (i.e., an attitude congruent with the messages position will emerge), and if unfavorable thoughts are generated while considering the merits of presented arguments, the message will most likely be rejected.1 In order for the message to be centrally processed, a person must have the ability and motivation to do so. In order for the receiver to have motivation to centrally process a message it must have relevance to him or her.Peripheral routePeripheral route processes, on the other hand, does not involve elaboration of the message through extensive cognitive processing of the merits of the actual argument presented. These processes often rely on environmental characteristics of the message, like the perceived credibility of the source, feel of the way in which it is presented, the attractiveness of the source, or the catchy slogan that contains the message.1 It is also frequently used when the argument presented is weak and/or lacking evidence. The peripheral route is a mental shortcut process that accepts or rejects a message based on irrelevant cues as opposed to actively thinking about the issue 2 The peripheral route is a process in which outside influences affect the decision making process.This is also the process used when the listening is unavailing to process the message. This could be from having a message that is too complex, or an audience that is immature. The most common influences would be factors such as reward. Reward could be objects like aliment, sex or money. These inducements create a quick change in mind and action. Celebrity status along with likability and expertise are other factors in the peripheral process that have become more popular. Humor within messages is a dominant influence in this process as well. Appearance also has the ability to gain the attention of individuals which can create an interest in the topic, but will not create a strong change in individuals. The goal of the peripheral process is to create change, this change can be weak and even temporary as opposed to the strong and lasting change in the central route.Choice of routeThe two factors that most influence which route an individual will take in a persuasive situation are motivation (strong impulse to process the message e.g., Petty Cacioppo, 1979) and ability (actually being capable of critical evaluation e.g., Petty, Wells, Brock, 1976). Which route is taken is determine d by the extent of elaboration. Both motivational and ability factors determine elaboration. Motivational factors include (among others) the personal relevance of the message topic, accountability, and a persons need for cognition (their innate desire to enjoy thinking). Ability factors include the availability of cognitive resources (e.g., the presence or absence of time pressures or distractions) or relevant knowledge needed to cautiously scrutinize the arguments.The ability to understand the message that is being communicated. Distractions such as noise can affect the ability for one to process a message. An example of noise would be a persuader trying to share his message in a room full of crying babies, this would make it extremely difficult for listeners to concentrate on the message being given. Noise that you cant physically control would be if a persuaders listeners could concentrate on the message because they had something else on their mind which was more important than the persuaders message like a death in the family, or problems theyre having in their relationship. Another example of this is in children.A child will change their behavior because his or her parent told them to do so rather than taking the information given and processing it. As that child grows up, however, he or she will have a higher cognitive complexity, and therefore be able to process the information of the situation centrally in order to get in a conclusion of their own. (OKeefe)The subjects general education level, as well as their education and experience with the topic at hand greatly affect their ability to be persuaded. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a mixture of central and peripheral route processes will guide information processing. There are benefits and consequences for both processes. An individual who disagrees with the message being presented will likely have a boomerang effect if he or she centrally processes the message and bounce farther away fr om the speakers goal. If that same situation takes place, but the message is peripherally processed, a weak change will not have as large of a negative effect on that individual. (OKeefe)Type of Elaboration Objective Versus Biased ThinkingAttitude, motivation, and ability strongly increase the likelihood that a message will be ingrained in the minds of listeners. Although, as the social judgement theory suggests, they may not process the information in a fair, impersonal way. Attitudes are general evaluations that people hold that correspond with how they perceive themselves in relation to the world they live in. One way to influence attitude is to give peripheral cues. Peripheral cues can be things that lead to good or punishing or they can invoke provide guiding rules or inferences. These are often effective because they cause the audience to draw the conclusion themselves, therefore, making them believe it is their own idea, so they buy in to it. (Griffin) Many of the evaluation s are based on Cognitive intelligence, behavior, and guidance.Given a basic understanding of an individuals attitudes one can interpret which type of elaboration would better suit the situation. There are two types of elaboration a listener can possess (Biased elaboration, Objective elaboration) Elaboration can lead to both positive and negative results depending on the audience who is receiving the message. Individuals who have a Pre conception of a certain topic are going to be much harder to persuade oppose to an individual who has an open mind about a topic where only the facts hold truth. Biased Elaboration Top-down thinking in which predetermined conclusions color the supporting data.This is used on people who likely already have their minds made up about a situation before the message is ever conveyed to them (Cacioppo) Ex. Someone who has had a negative personal experience with motorcycles will probably have made up their minds and be biased in the way they process the messa ge.2 Objective Elaboration bottom-up thinking in which facts are scrutinized without bias seeking truth wherever it might lead. These listeners let the facts speak for themselves and approach the message with an unbias mind. Which leads to a true indifferent result or opinion. (Cacioppo) Ex. A person who is listening to a motorcycle salesman and already has a mindset about them. This person would let the facts influence their attitude.2 interrogation the Elaboration Likelihood ModelTo design a way to test the Elaboration Likelihood Model, it is crucial to determine whether an argument is universally seen as strong or weak. If an argument is inconsistent in opinions of strength, the results of persuasion will be inconsistent. A strong argument is defined by Petty and Cacioppo as one containing arguments such that when subjects are instructed to think about the message, the thoughts they generate are fundamentally favorable (Griffin).In general, a weak argument that is universally vi ewed as weak will entice unfavorable results if the subject is instructed to and is in an appropriate environment to consider it logically (or when testing the central route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model). In turn, a strong argument under similar circumstances will return favorable results. The test arguments must also be rated for ease of understanding, complexity, and familiarity. To scientifically study either route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model, the arguments themselves must be designed to have consistent results.3Conclusions of the Elaboration Likelihood ModelIn addition to these factors, the ELM also makes several unique proposals.1 It is suggested that attitudes formed under high elaboration, the central route, are stronger than those formed under low elaboration. This means that this level of persuasion is stable over time and is less susceptible to decay or any type of counter-persuasion. Attitudes formed under low elaboration, the peripheral route, are more lik ely to cause a short term attitude change. Variables in ELM routes can serve multiple roles in a persuasive setting depending on other contextual factors (examples below). Under high elaboration, a given variable (e.g., source expertise) can either serve as an argument (If hotshot agrees with the theory of relativity, then this is a strong reason for me to as well) or as a biasing factor (if an expert agrees with this position it is probably good, so let me see what else agrees with this conclusion at the expense of information that may disagree with it).4 Under conditions of low elaboration, a given variable can act as a peripheral cue.This could happen, e.g., through the use of an experts are always right heuristic. Note that, while this is similar to the Einstein example presented above, this is a simple shortcut, which, dissimilar the Einstein example, does not require careful thought. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a given variable can serve to direct the extent o f information processing If an expert agrees with this position, I should really listen to what (s)he has to say. Interestingly, when a variable affects elaboration, this can increase or decrease persuasion, depending on the strength of the arguments presented. If the arguments are strong, enhancing elaboration will enhance persuasion.If the arguments are weak, however, more thought will undermine persuasion. More recent adaptations of the ELM (e.g.)5 have added an additional role that variables can serve. They can affect the extent to which a person has confidence in, and thus trusts, their own thoughts in response to a message (self-validation role). Keeping with our source expertise example, a person may feel that if an expert presented this information, it is probably correct, and thus I can trust that my reactions to it are informative with respect to my attitude. Note that this role, because of its metacognitive nature, only occurs under conditions that promote high elaboratio n.Pasted fromAttitudesAttitudes are evaluations people make about objects, ideas, events, or other people. Attitudes can be positive or negative. Explicit attitudes are conscious beliefs that can guide decisions and behavior. Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that can still influence decisions and behavior. Attitudes can include up to three components cognitive, emotional, and behavioral. role model Jane believes that smoking is unhealthy, feels excite when people smoke around her, and avoids being in situations where people smoke. Dimensions of AttitudesResearchers study three dimensions of attitude strength, accessibility, and ambivalence. Attitude strength Strong attitudes are those that are firm held and that highly influence behavior. Attitudes that are important to a person tend to be strong. Attitudes that people have a vested interest in also tend to be strong. Furthermore, people tend to have stronger attitudes about things, events, ideas, or people they have con siderable knowledge and information about. Attitude accessibility The accessibility of an attitude refers to the ease with which it comes to mind. In general, highly accessible attitudes tend to be stronger. Attitude ambivalence Ambivalence of an attitude refers to the ratio of positive and negative evaluations that make up that attitude. The ambivalence of an attitude increases as the positive and negative evaluations get more and more equal.The Influence of Attitudes on BehaviorBehavior does not always reflect attitudes. However, attitudes do determine behavior in some situations If there are few outside influences, attitude guides behavior.Example Wyatt has an attitude that eating junk food is unhealthy. When he is at home, he does not eat chips or candy. However, when he is at parties, he indulges in these foods. Behavior is guided by attitudes specific to that behavior.Example Megan might have a general attitude of respect toward seniors, but that would not prevent her from bei ng disrespectful to an elderly woman who cuts her off at a stop sign. However, if Megan has an easygoing attitude about being cut off at stop signs, she is not likely to swear at somebody who cuts her off. Behavior is guided by attitudes that come to mind easily.Example Ron has an attitude of mistrust and annoyance toward telemarketers, so he immediately hangs up the phone whenever he realizes he has been contacted by one.The Influence of Behavior on AttitudesBehavior also affects attitudes. Evidence for this comes from the foot-in-the-door phenomenon and the effect of role playing.The Foot-in-the-Door PhenomenonPeople tend to be more likely to agree to a difficult request if they have first agreed to an easy one. This is called the foot-in-the-door phenomenon.Example Jill is more likely to let an acquaintance borrow her laptop for a day if he first persuades her to let him borrow her textbook for a day.Social Norms and Social RolesSocial norms are a societys rules about appropriate behavior. Norms exist for practically every kind of situation. Some norms are explicit and are made into laws, such as the norm While driving, you may not run over a pedestrian. Other norms are implicit and are followed unconsciously, such as You may not wear a bikini to class. Social roles are patterns of behavior that are considered appropriate for a person in a particular context. For example, gender roles tell people how a particular society expects men and women to behave. A person who violates the requirements of a role tends to feel uneasy or to be censured by others. Role requirements can change over time in a society.The Effect of Role Playing and the Prison StudyPeople tend to internalize roles they play, changing their attitudes to fit the roles. In the 1970s, the psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted a famous study called the prison study, which showed how roles influence people. Zimbardo assigned one group of college student volunteers to play the role of prison guard s in a off-key prison environment. He provided these students with uniforms, clubs, and whistles and told them to enforce a set of rules in the prison.He assigned another group of students to play the role of prisoners. Zimbardo found that as time went on, some of the guard students became increasingly harsh and domineering. The prisoner students also internalized their role. Some broke down, while others rebelled or became passively resigned to the situation. The internalization of roles by the two groups of students was so extreme that Zimbardo had to terminate the study after only six days.